C++

This article is devoted to collect content about the C++ programming language.

• The goal is to describe all aspects of C++ in a simple form.

C++ is programming language created in 1985 by Bjarne Stroustrup.

C++ is based on the C programming language. OOP in C++ was inspired by the Simula67 programming language. Almost all C programs are valid C++ programs.

The name of the C++ programming language is related to the incremental operator "++" and was created by Rick Mascitti in Summer 1983 and was first used in December 1983.

The C++ predecessor is "C with Classes", which is an extension of the C programming language created by Bjarne Stroustup in 1979.

• "C with Classes" introduced object-oriented programming (OOP).
• "C with Classes" maintained the efficiency of C.

• powerful
• high-performance
• it combines the efficiency of low-level programming with the flexibility of high-level abstractions.

• Procedural - emphasizes algorithms, for big projects
• Object-oriented - emphasizes data, for big projects
• Generic - emphasizes algorithms, for small tasks like sorting or linked lists
• Functional

• Whether you're developing high-performance applications, working on system-level programming, or building scalable software, C++ provides the tools and flexibility needed for success.

• Object-Oriented Programming (OOP): Supports classes, inheritance, polymorphism, and encapsulation.
• Templates & Generic Programming: Enables code reusability through function and class templates.
• Memory Management: Provides both automatic and manual memory control via new, delete, and smart pointers.
• Standard Template Library (STL): Includes data structures, algorithms, and iterators for efficient programming.
• Multithreading Support: Offers thread management features for concurrent programming.
• Low-Level Manipulation: Allows direct interaction with hardware, making it suitable for system-level programming.
• High Performance: Optimized for speed and resource management, making it ideal for performance-critical applications.

• Game Development: Used in game engines like Unreal Engine.
• Operating Systems: Many operating systems, including parts of Windows and Linux, are built with C++.
• Embedded Systems: Used in automotive software, IoT devices, and real-time systems.
• Finance & Trading Systems: High-frequency trading platforms rely on C++ for low-latency execution.
• Scientific Computing: Used in applications like MATLAB, CERN software, and physics simulations.

Comparison of C++ and C

• Classes
• Objects
• Inheritance
• Polymorphism
• Virtual functions
• Runtime type identification (RTTI)
• Function overloading
• Reference variables
• Generic programming via the Standard Template Library (STL
• Exceptions
• Namespaces

How to create a C++ program

File name extensions of C++ source code file

Other

Functions

Function main()

Function main() is the entrypoint of an C++ application.

• int main() {return 0;}
• void main() {return 0;}
• void main(void) {return 0;}
• int main(void) {return 0;}

Console

Comments

Preprocessor directives

#include <iostream>

#define INT_MAX 32767

Importing namespaces

C++ statement

Declaration (statement type)

Assignment (statement type)

Initialization (statement type)

Key words

Constexpr

Variable

Data types

Void

Integral

Floating-point

Combined data types

Operators

sizeof

Class

Integrated development environments for C++

• IDEs for C++
• Visual Studio Community
• CLion
• Code::Blocks
• Eclipse
• Netbeans

Visual Studio

C++ Compilers

Cfront

• The generated C code was then converted by the C compiler to the machine code.

GCC

Clang

Microsoft Visual C++

C++ Decompilers

Ghidra

IDA

C++ Disassemblers

Ghidra

IDA Free

Objdump

How to convert a x86 exe file to the Assembly language

Steps to Create an Executable Program in C++

1. Create the C++ source code in any text editor.
   This step is done by the programmer (human).
2. Convert the C++ source code to object code (machine language).
   This step is done by the compiler.
3. Link the object code with libraries.
   The result is an executable program. This step is done by the linker.

History of C++ Standardization

1990

The work on the standardization of C++ started in 1990 by ANSI/ISO.

1991–1997

During the following years, several working drafts of the C++ standard were published.

Before 1998

Before official standardization, many people recognized the latest versions of C++ published by Bell Labs as the de facto standard.

1998

The first official standard of C++ was published and is known as C++98.

The Future of C++: 10, 100, and 1000 Years Ahead

The Next 10 Years: Evolution and Adaptation

In the short term, C++ will continue evolving with regular standard updates every three years. The upcoming C++26 and C++29 are expected to refine the language further, focusing on:

• Better safety features: Improvements in memory safety, possibly integrating Rust-like borrow checking mechanisms.
• Enhanced concurrency: More efficient multi-threading and parallelism to utilize modern hardware architectures.
• Improved modularity: Widespread adoption of C++ modules for better compilation speeds and cleaner codebases.
• Integration with AI and ML: Libraries and language features that optimize C++ for artificial intelligence and machine learning applications.
• More functional programming features: Expanding features like coroutines and concepts to support functional programming paradigms.

The Next 100 Years: The Role of C++ in a Post-Classical Computing Era

As computing paradigms shift, C++ will need to adapt to entirely new architectures. Some potential transformations include:

• Quantum Computing: C++ may evolve to support quantum programming models, integrating libraries and language features to work alongside quantum processors.
• AI-Driven Development: AI-assisted coding tools may redefine how developers interact with C++, making manual memory management obsolete through automated optimization techniques.
• Post-Silicon Computing: As new materials replace traditional silicon, C++ will likely adapt to leverage hardware advances in ways that maintain its performance edge.
• Universal Compilation: Future compilers might optimize C++ code in real-time across different computing paradigms, ensuring seamless execution on both classical and quantum systems.
• Self-Optimizing Code: C++ programs may become self-modifying and self-optimizing, using AI to rewrite parts of their own source code to maintain efficiency.

The Next 1000 Years: The Legacy of C++ in a Post-Human World

Predicting the state of technology 1000 years into the future is speculative, but here are some possibilities for C++'s long-term role:

• Intergalactic Computing: If humanity colonizes other planets, C++ could be a core language for interstellar software, ensuring robust and efficient computing across vast distances.
• Biological Integration: C++ may evolve to interact with biological computing systems, enabling programming interfaces that communicate directly with synthetic or enhanced human cognition.
• Post-Human AI Systems: Advanced AI might continue to use C++ as a foundational language for self-replicating and self-evolving software.
• Timeless Digital Preservation: C++ could become part of a universal computing standard, ensuring that knowledge and legacy software remain readable and executable for thousands of years.
• Virtual Reality as Reality: If humanity transitions to a fully simulated or virtual existence, C++ (or a descendant language) could be the foundation for simulated universes and AI-driven reality models.

Conclusion

C++ has continuously adapted over the past 40+ years, and there is no reason to believe it won’t continue evolving for the next millennium. Whether through performance optimizations, new computing paradigms, or AI-driven development, C++ is poised to remain one of the most influential languages far into the future. While it may not exist in its current form in 1000 years, its principles of efficiency, flexibility, and control over hardware will likely shape the foundation of future computing.

Performance Comparison: Reimplementing a 2D Platformer (C++/DirectX 3 to Java/LibGDX)

1. Language Differences (C++ vs. Java)

• C++: A low-level language offering greater control over hardware and performance optimization. Games written in C++ often run faster due to direct memory and hardware management.
• Java: A higher-level language running on the Java Virtual Machine (JVM), introducing an abstraction layer between code and hardware. While modern JVMs (e.g., Java 11 with JIT compilation) reduce performance gaps, there may still be overhead compared to C++.

2. Graphics Libraries (DirectX 3 vs. LibGDX)

• DirectX 3: An older technology optimized for direct hardware access on 1998-era systems, allowing efficient rendering on limited hardware.
• LibGDX: A modern game development framework leveraging OpenGL or Vulkan (depending on the platform) and designed for cross-platform compatibility. While highly optimized, LibGDX may introduce performance overhead on lower-end systems due to JVM and API abstractions.

3. Platform Performance

• C++/DirectX 3: Specifically tuned for older platforms with close integration to 1990s-era hardware, yielding optimal performance.
• Java/LibGDX: Designed for modern platforms and devices, which might result in slight inefficiencies compared to the low-level optimizations available in C++.

4. Memory Management

• C++: Provides full control over memory allocation and deallocation, allowing developers to optimize performance to the smallest detail.
• Java: Utilizes a Garbage Collector (GC) for memory management. While modern GCs are highly efficient, frequent allocation/deallocation patterns might introduce latency and occasional performance dips.

5. Rendering and FPS

• At the target 20 FPS with a resolution of 640x480, this is trivial for modern systems. Both C++ and Java should easily achieve this performance. However, Java may experience slight slowdowns if the code is not carefully optimized due to JVM overhead and less direct access to rendering APIs.

Conclusion

The performance of a Java/LibGDX implementation may be slightly worse than the original C++/DirectX 3 version due to:

• JVM overhead,
• less direct hardware access,
• and potential inefficiencies in library abstractions.

That said, for modern hardware and a well-written Java implementation, the performance difference should be negligible for a simple 2D platformer. Furthermore, the cross-platform support offered by LibGDX is a significant advantage that can outweigh minor performance trade-offs.

Testing

• Google Test
• Catch2
• Boost Test Library
• CppUnit

Books

• The Design and Evolution of C++”